The development of Kurdish nationalism in Turkey can be understood through five key stages, as outlined by Hakan Yavuz:

Stage 1: Ottoman Centralization and Religious Networks (1878-1924)

This stage was characterized by:

• The Ottoman state’s centralization policies

• Penetration of European capitalism

• Politicization and mobilization of local Islamic networks

• Naksibendi and Kadiri orders serving as vehicles of resistance against centralization

• Formation of early Kurdish identity

Stage 2: Transition to Nation-State (1925-1961)

This period involved:

• Transformation from multi-ethnic Ottoman entity to Turkish nation-state

• Kurdish tribal reaction to Mustafa Kemal’s nation-building project

• Anti-centralization rebels demanding autonomous tribal structures

• Emergence of Kurdish proto-nationalism

• Denial or reconstruction of Kurdish identity by the new Republican ideology

Stage 3: Secularization of Kurdish Identity (1962-1983)

During this stage:

• Kurdish identity became secularized

• Kurdish movement aligned with broader leftist movements in Turkey

Stage 4: PKK-led Insurgency (1983-1998)

This stage was marked by:

• Violent insurgency led by the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK)

• Intensification of Kurdish nationalist struggle

Stage 5: Potential Accommodation (1999 onwards)

The fifth stage, beginning with the arrest of Abdullah Öcalan in 1999, represents:

• A potential shift towards accommodation between Turkish and Kurdish aspirations

• An emerging phase where some resolution might be possible

Throughout these stages, the Turkish state’s policies have been a determinant factor in the evolution and modulation of Kurdish ethno-nationalism. The shift from the multi-ethnic, multi-cultural realities of the Ottoman Empire to the homogenizing Turkish nation-state model has been a major source of conflict.